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?????????? ?? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????????? ?? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ??????? (1933-1945) ?????? ?? ????? ???????? . ????? ???????????? ??????? ??? ?????? ??????? ??????? ????? ???????? ?????. ?????? ??? ?????? ???????? ?? ???????? ?? ??? ???? ????? ????? ???????. ?????? ???????? ?????????. ????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ?? ??? ?????? ???? ??????? ??? ??????? ????? ????? ???????? ???????? ??????. ??? ??? ???????? ?? ?? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??? ?? ??? ???????? ????? ?????????? ????????? ????? ????. ??? ?? ??????? ???????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ??????. ???? ???? ??????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ???? ??? 1941? ???? ?? ??? ?? ????? ???? ??? ?? ???? ?? ?????.

1

2
????? ??? ???? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?? ?????? ???? ??????? ??????? ???????? ????????? ?????? ?? ????? ?? ????? 1933.
.United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Photo Archives #14995. Courtesy of Hans Levi. Source Record ID: Collections: 1992.40.2. Copyright of United States Holocaust Memorial Museum

3
1 ????? 1933: ??? ?? ??????? ??????? ???? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ????? ??? ??????? ¡°?? ?????? ?? ??????¡±.
.United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Photo Archives #78589. Courtesy of National Archives and Records Administration, College Park. Source Record ID: 306-NT-178- United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Photo Archives #78589.

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5

6
???? ???????: ¡°???????? ??? ??????? ??????? ?? ??? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????? ??? ?? ??????. ????? ?? ???? ?????? ???¡±.
.United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Photo Archives #74592. Courtesy of John Howell. Source Record ID: Collections: 2002.216.1

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.Oral history conducted by Beth B. Cohen, Providence, R.I., 7 April 1994. Courtesy of Beth B. Cohen

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9
???? ?????? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????. ?? ???? ?????? ????? ¡® ??¡® ??? ???????.
.United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Photo Archives #62547. Courtesy of Ralph Harpuder. Copyright of United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.

10
???? ???? ?????? ???? ?????? ????? ??????? ?? ???????? ???????. ?? ??? 1935? ???? ?????? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?? ???????? ???????? ???????? ?? ???????. ?? ???????? ???? ????? ??????? ?? ??????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ???????.
.United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Photo Archives #67856. Courtesy of Irene Lewitt. Copyright of United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Provenance: Irene Lewitt

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????? ?? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????? ¡°????? ?????¡± ???? ?? ???? ???????? ¡°????????¡± ??? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????: ????? ?????? ????????? ?????? ???? ????.
.United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Photo Archives #49776. Courtesy of Library of Congress and Roland Klemig. Copyright of United States Holocaust Memorial Museum

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13
???? ?????? ??????? ????????? (?????? 1921)? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ????? ????????? ?? ???????? 1942. ??? ????? ????? ??? ???????? ?????? ?????? ?????.
.United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Photo Archives #33336. Courtesy of Rita Prigmore. Copyright of United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Source Record ID: Collections: 2004.226.1

14
????? ??????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????. ???? ????? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ???? ????? ???? ?????? ???????? ??????? ????? ????? ?? ??? ?????????? ?? 8 ?????? 1944. ??? ??? ??????.
.United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Photo Archives # 20499. Courtesy of Martin Tillmans. Copyright of United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Source Record ID: Collections: 1991.204

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???? ????? ??? ???????? ??? ??? ???????? ????? ???? ?????. ???? ??????? ???????? ??? ?? ????????.
.United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Photo Archives # ID5364. Courtesy of Friedrich-Paul von Groszheim, Copyright of United States Holocaust Memorial Museum

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??? ????? ???? ???? ??? 1932 ?? ??????? ?????? ?? ??????. ?? ??? 1942? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ?????. ?? ?????? ????? ??????? ??? ????? ???????? ????? ????? ?? ??? 1944. ?? ????? ????? ??? ?????? ???? ?? ?????? ???????? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ?????
.Copyright of United States Holocaust Memorial Museum ID Cards. https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/id-card/joseph-muscha-mueller

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???? ????? ??????? ????? ????? ????? ???? ??? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ??????? 1936. ??????? ?????? ???? ?? ?????? ??? ??? ??????? ???????????? ?????? ¡°??????? ?????? ¡° ?? ???????? ?????? ????? ??????? ??????? ???????.
.Copyright the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, courtesy of the Library of Congress

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????? ???? ????????? ??????? ?? ?????? ??????? ?? ??? 1939 ??? ????? ??? ???????? ??? ???? ????? ???? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ??????? ??????? ?????????????? ??????? ??? ????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ??? ???? 1938 ?1940.
.United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Photo Archives # 61853B. Courtesy of Ellen Gerber. Copyright of United States Holocaust Memorial Museum

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21
????? ????? ?????? ??? ???????? ?? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????????.
.France: gift of Gershia Luxenburg; Belgium: gift of Augusta Kaplan; the Netherlands: gift of Julia Schor. All from the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Collection

22
????? ???? ?? ????? ????????? (?? ??????) ????? ?????? ???????? (1928-2022) ?? ???????? ?????? 1944.
.United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Photo Archives #99604. Courtesy of Michael Blain. Copyright of United States Holocaust Memorial Museum

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.RG Number: RG-50.030.0127, Oral History of Edward Lessing. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Collection. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, DC

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??? ???? ??????? ?????? ????? (1912-1971) ????? ???????? (1922-2021). ??? ?????? ???? ???? ???? ????? ??????? ??? ???? ?????? ??????????. ??????? 1942.
.United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Photo Archives #81799. Courtesy of Lennie Jade. Copyright the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Source Record ID: ?/162. Second Record ID: Collections: 2012.242

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?????? ??????? (1904-1944)? ???? ????? ?? ????? ???? ??????? ????? ??? 1943.
.Courtesy of Felix-Nussbaum-Haus at Museumquartier Osnabr¨¹ck, loan from the Nieders?chsische Sparkassenstiftung.Foto: Museumquartier Osnabr¨¹ck. Photographer: Christian Grovermann

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???? ?????? ?????? ?? ??????? ????????? ????? ????? ?? ????? ?????? 1938. 10 ?????? 1938.
.United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Photo Archives #86838. Courtesy of National Archives and Records Administration, College Park. Copyright of United States Holocaust Memorial Museum

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.Courtesy of Yale University Press

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?????????? ?????????? ?? ???? ??????? ?????? ??????? 1942.
.Yad Vashem Photo Archives, Archival Signature # 4613_659, 1942. Courtesy of Moshe Shalvi. Copyright Yad Vashem

34

35
???? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ???????? ??????? 1940.
.Yad Vashem Photo Archives, Archival Signature 5187_3. Courtesy of Irena Eber. Copyright Yad Vashem

36
.The Diary of Dawid Sierakowiak: Five Notebooks from the Lodz Ghetto. 18 March 1942. Courtesy of Oxford University Press

37
??? ?? ???? ??????? ?????? ??????? ??? 1940-1944.
.Photograph by Mendel Grossman (1913-1945) who died on a death march, 30 April 1945. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Photo Archives #24635, Courtesy of Moshe Zilbar, Source Record ID: Collections: 2005.214. Copyright of United States Holocaust Memorial Museum

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????? ????? ?????? ??? ??? ?????? ?? ?????. ???? ??? ?????? ???????? ?? ?? ?????? ????????? ??????? ??? ??? ????? ???????? ????? ??? 1941-1942.
.United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Photo Archives #08059. Courtesy of Karl Katz. Copyright United States Holocaust Memorial Museum and Beit Lohamei Haghetaot (Ghetto Fighters¡¯ House Museum) Source Record ID: 26792

39
????? ????????: ???? ????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ????????? ?????????.
.United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Photo Archives #08057. Courtesy of Karl Katz. Copyright United States Holocaust Memorial Museum and Beit Lohamei Haghetaot (Ghetto Fighters¡¯ House Museum) Source Record ID: 7007

40

41
????? ????? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ?????? ???? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ???????? ????? ??? ??????? ????? 1940-1944????? ???? ??????? (1913-1945)??? ???? ?? ????? ?????? 30 ????? 1945
.United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Photo Archives #24641. Courtesy of Moshe Zilbar. Source Record ID: Collections: 2005.214. Copyright of United States Holocaust Memorial Museum

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43
???? ???????? ???? ?????? ?????? ????? ??? ??????? ??????? ????? ???? ???? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ????? 1942. ????? ????? ???????? ???? ????????? ???????? ?? ???? ??????? ?? ????????? ???.
.United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Photo Archives #74534A. Courtesy of Robert Abrams. Source Record ID: Bild 101I/133/719/06. Copyright of United States Holocaust Memorial Museum

44
"???? ?? ???? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ??? ???????? ?????? 1942.????? ???? ??????? (1913-1945) ???? ??? ???? ?? ????? ?????? 30 ????? 1945." .
.United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Photo Archives #23698.Gift of Hana Greenbaum and Shmuel Zilbar in memory of Rozka Grosman Zilbar and Moshe Zilbar (Zilberstein), and Mendel Grossman. Source Record ID: Collections: 2005.214. Copyright of United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.

45
????? ??????? ?? ???? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ???????? ??? ????? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? 1942. ?? ??? ?? ?? ???????.
.United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Photo Archives #50328. Courtesy of Instytut Pamieci Narodowej. Copyright of United States Holocaust Memorial Museum

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.RG Number: RG-50.030.0500, Oral History Interview with Paula S. Biren, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Collection, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, DC

47
????? ?????? ?? ????????? ????? ??? ?? ??? ?????? ?????? ??????? ????? 1944. ?????? ?????
.Yad Vashem Photo Ar. Copyright Yad Vashem Photo Archives, Archival Signature FA58_72. Photographer unknown

48
??? ????? ¡°?????¡± ???????? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ????????? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ??????????? ??????? 1944. ???? ????? ????? ???? ????? ?? ????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ????????. (1940-1945)
.Copyright Yad Vashem Photo Archives, Archival Signature 1475/30

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??? ???? ?? ?????? ?????? ???????? ??? ????? ?????? ????????? ?? ????????? ???????? ????? 1942-1943. ??? ??? ?? ??? 8000 ?15000 ?? ?????? ?? ???????.
.United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Photo Archives # #85799 Courtesy Muzej Revolucije Narodnosti Jugoslavije, Source Record ID: B 828/1 Copyright Jasenovac Memorial Museum

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????? ?????? ?? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ?????? 1942. ????? ?????? ????? ???? ??? ??????? ?? ????? ?? ????.
.Photograph by Lodz ghetto survivor Henryk Ross. Copyright Yad Vashem Photo Archives, Archival Signature 2631/27

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??? ????? ???? ??? ??????? ?? ??? ?????? ????????? ????? ??? 1943. ????? ??? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ?? ?????? ???? ?????
.United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Photo Archives #81082. Courtesy of George Kadish/Zvi Kadushin, photographer. Copyright of United States Holocaust Memorial Museum

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??? ????? ???????? (?????? 1929) ??? ?????? ??????? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ?? ??? 1944.
.United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Photo Archives #97018. Courtesy of Simon Jeruchim. Source Record ID: Collections: 2001.328.4. Copyright of United States Holocaust Memorial Museum

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55
?????? ????? ????? ??????? ?? ???????? ??? ????? ???????? ???????. ????? ??? ?? ????? ????? ???????? ?? 25-26 ?????? 1941. ?? ??? 3500 ?? ???? ???????? ?? ??? ??? ??? ????? ?? ???????.
.United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Photo Archives # 16713. Copyright of United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Courtesy Yad Vashem

56
.Flora Herzberger memoir, RG-02.162. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Archives, Washington DC

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???? ?????? ???? ?? ?????? ???????????? ??? ??????? ???????? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ???????? (1940-1945)? ???? 1944.
.United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Photo Archives #77255. Courtesy of Yad Vashem (Public Domain). Source Record ID: FA 268/055. Published Source: The Auschwitz Album ¨C Peter Hellman, Random House. Copyright of United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.

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?????? ??????? ?? ???????????? ????? ???????? ?? ????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ???????? (1940-1945)? ???? 1944.
.United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Photo Archives #77368. Courtesy of Yad Vashem (Public Domain). Copyright of United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Source Record ID: FA 268/156

59
?????? ?????? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ???????? (1940-1945)? ?????? 1945.
.United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Photo Archives # 14877, courtesy of Philip Vock. Copyright Yad Vashem Photo Archives, Archival Signature 10D03

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???? ????? ?????? ???????? ?? ???????? ????????????? ???????? 1936. ????? ?????? ?? ????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ???????? (1940-1945)? 15 ????? 1944.
.Copyright Yad Vashem Photo Archives, Archival Signature 10011/4., Courtesy of Yocheved Chapnik

 

????? ?????? ?????? ?? ?? ?????? ?????? ???????? 1933-1945.

???? ??????? ????? ??? ???? ???????? ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???.

??????? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ???????????? ?? ???? ????. ???? ????? ?????? ??????????? ?? ???? ???? ??????? ???? ????.

?????? ???? ???  ?? ??? ???????

?????? ????????